Health and Behavior Research Agenda for Hispanics
M. Gavina and J. Arana
Univeristy of
1987
Simon Bolivar Research Monograph No. 1
STRESSORS: MIGRATION AND ACCULTURATION TO
AMERICAN SOCIETY
RACQUEL E. COHEN,
M.D., M.P.H.
Department of
Psychiatry
University of
Abstract
This paper
addresses the complex life events affecting Hispanic populations that have
exchanged their habitual and physical environment for new, uncharted and
unfamiliar settings in the
Introduction
Migration to the
This paper
addresses the complex life events affecting Hispanic populations that have
exchanged their habitual social and physical environments for new, uncharted
and unfamiliar settings in the
In this paper
Hispanic populations are defined as the variety of Ibero-American
individuals who have citizenship in another country before arriving in the
Literature on Migration
The literature on
migration links migration with different levels of stressors and stress
responses. Several authors have investigated the causes and effects of
migration, suggesting that stressors can stimulate migration or that migration
can produce stressors along the continuum of transitional stages that the
individual faces, concretely or figuratively. The individual may go through
several countries before arriving in the
Studies on the
impact of migratory events focused on such issues as coping with changes
produced by traveling across internal rural-urban settings within continents, a
few miles between two countries, or across narrow waterways (8).
The events
described in these studies vary in many ways, including characteristics of the
native country, population, transitional stages of travel, type of host country
and population. Findings are further confounded by the different research
methodologies, designs, theoretical orientations and dependent variables. The
lack of a precise definition and the differing dependent variables researched
are related to the ambiguous and conflicting results reported in the
literature.
Conceptual Framework
A social
psychiatry framework is used to organize the substantial data accumulated on
migration and acculturation. Social psychiatry primarily concerns itself with
forces in the social environment that affect the ability of groups or
individuals to adapt, adjust, or to change the self or the environment. It
focuses on issues affecting family and society as they interact in social
settings. It attempts to clarify, identify and increase understanding of how groups
of people adapt and to define the processes and social structures that damage
or enhance adaptive capacity (9).
Basic Concepts
The human services
community and the general public have become increasingly concerned about
stressful aspects of contemporary society and about the ways stressful
experiences may affect human lifestyle, morbidity and mortality. Recent
research suggests that under a combination of life conditions, response to
stress may decrease the body's ability to combat destructive psychological or
biological forces, thus making humans vulnerable to a variety of disorders
(10).
Despite
recognition of the usefulness of the operational construct, stress is a
difficult concept to define precisely. In this presentation, the concept of
adaptation has been chosen as a useful framework from which to approach a
working definition of stress response. In acculturation studies, individual
self-esteem has been reported as an outcome of adaptation (11).
Theoretical explanatory approaches to understanding human behavior under the stress associated with migration and acculturation are organized as a group of building blocks of knowledge. The basic theoretical body of knowledge addressed here includes:
l. The
concept of the individual as a bio-psycho-social system interacting within a
changing environment (12). This model is modified by the addition of the
"culture" system as an added interactive component because it
provides a broader Conceptual base of knowledge for elucidating the phenomenology
of migratory and acculturation behavior (13).
2. The theories of interacting
stressors (stress responses promoting coping adaptive mechanisms within trans-cultural
settings) assist in analyzing some of the research findings on migration and
acculturation (14-18).
In an effort to develop a conceptual frame of reference that relates migration and acculturation to the trans-cultural study of stressor-stress response, it is helpful to define terms.
Definition of Stressor-Stress Response
The
1. Stressors (activators) are
events or conditions that elicit physical or psychosocial reactions (in
particular individuals under specific conditions). These vary in intensity,
quantity and temporal pattern relations.
2. Reactions are biological or
psychosocial responses of an individual to a stressor and may vary in
intensity, effectiveness or appropriateness of response within temporal
patterns.
3. Consequences are physical or
psychosocial results of prolonged, cumulative effects of the reaction (some are
positive/ favorable).
4. Mediators are filters and
modifiers that define the context in which the stressor reaction - consequences
sequence occurs, thus producing individual variations. They can be biologic, psychologic and/or social.
Several other concepts should also be clarified.
l. Life events: These are events in the course of daily living that vary
in their impact on an individual according to occurrence, timing, sequence, the
motivational factors that precipitated the coping resources available for their
management, the cognitive appraisal of their significance, and their adaptational outcome (20).
2. Coping behaviors: Coping behaviors are complex psychosocial behaviors
that are effective responses to a group of stimuli and they set up
"internal" goal-oriented reactive mechanisms. Coping goals are
accomplished by. 1) containing the sense of distress
within limits that are personally tolerable; 2) maintaining self-esteem; 3)
preserving interpersonal relationships; and 4) meeting and managing the
conditions of the new circumstances (21).
Basic Research Themes
It is postulated
that the process of coping and adapting to stressors helps explain the
individual differences found among migrants in their reaction to stressor
events. Lazarus' approach (22) to the study of stress focuses on the individual
being taxed by stimulus demand up to the limit of potential ability to adapt.
Lazarus (22)
proposes that stressor stimuli have an effect on cognitive processes which, in
turn, trigger emotional and behavioral reactions. His cognitive-phenomenological
theory is useful for conceptualizing migration and acculturation stress
responses. He links many of the processes of coping and adapting to the
individual's appraisal system which can recognize threats and so strengthen the
individual's survival probability. Appraisal (orientation) is an important
warning process of survival. The individual makes a cognitive analysis of the
potential threat or stress-provoking force of the "activators,"
evaluates the level of risk involved, and estimates his/her ability to cope
with it.
Horowitz (23)
notes "evocation of a stress state requires that the person register and
interpret incoming stimuli as clues of threat." Culture is a powerful
determinant in the evaluation of stimuli as stressors. It also determines the
culture-bound expression of affects which are labeled and programmed by
traditional language and customs (24).
This theoretical
framework assists in setting up the trans-cultural understanding of the coping
and adaptation methods available to the Hispanic migrant in his/her
acculturation efforts: that is, his/her culture not only determines the
characteristics of his/her appraisal judgment, but also programs his/her
awareness of what affect s/ he is manifesting.
Cassel's (25) contributions to our understanding of
immigrants' behavior rests on his theory that the most important aspect of
man's environment for man - from an adaptive ethological point of view - is the
presence of other members of his/her species. Evidence supporting this comes
from animal studies.
Changes in group
membership and the quality of group relations have been shown to be accompanied
by changes in behavior.
When behavioral
patterns fail to accomplish their intended, expected result - that is, to lead
to predictable responses on the part of another individual - repetitive,
ineffective interactions result. This becomes a source of stress for the
immigrant when these actions which serve as feedback processes are designed to
modify the individual's relationship to the host social group with whom s/he
interacts.
A second postulate
in
Taking all these
principles into account, not all consequences of novel and stressful social
interactions between a migrant and a host-country member will affect all immigrants
in the same manner. These consequences will depend on: 1) the importance and
salience of the relationship- whether disordered or functional; 2) the position
of the individual experiencing such a new relationship in the status hierarchy
which s/he has entered as a consequence of migration; 3) the degree to which
the migrant population has been unprepared, has strong value conflicts, and
believes as threatening the situation in which s/he finds him/herself, and 4)
the nature and strength of the effective, available group support. These points
may allow us to conclude that we cannot assume that only one methodological
source of stressors produces maladjustment in migrant individuals.
Migration and Stress: Basic Concepts
Stress responses
involve a dynamic, synergistic interaction of elements that include the
characteristics of the event and of the individual within a social, structural,
and cultural resource setting. Cultural factors program, support, and transmit
systems of belief that give the migrant an internal source of explanation and
meaning for the events in his/her new American setting. That is, the migrant
will process novel configurations of stimuli psychologically using his/her
internalized, culturally-guided mode of interpreting events, the actions of
At a socio-psychological
level, the migrant may be handicapped by a group of vulnerability factors which
evolve over time and produce an internal and external sense of personal
dysfunction. This subjective sense of vulnerability is added to the experience
of "being different," of being ignorant of the "rules of the
game," of not having effective negotiating skills. All these form a
dynamic retrogressive loop, affecting the range of stimuli viewed as
threatening. This, in turn, produces the effect and conviction that either: 1)
one can perform the acts necessary for effective coping (efficacy expectation);
or 2) the environment will be responsive to those efforts (outcome
expectations) (26).
Uprooting
Uprooting within
the migrant's experience can be a time of human disaster or desolation or a
time of adaptation and growth into new capacities. This is the philosophy that
I would like to impart in this presentation on migration and acculturation to
the
The World Health
Organization has identified uprooting as "the common factor in a number of
psychological high-risk situations, such as migration, urbanization,
resettlement and rapid social change" (27). Thus changes produced by
uprooting produce different effects on different Hispanic population groups,
depending on the individual's developmental stage, personality structure,
acquired social skills, level of psychological health, and experience in
successful crisis resolution. These changes also depend upon the availability
and appropriateness of the individual's support systems. In the field of
behavioral sciences, including psychiatry, what can be culled out of our
knowledge base and applied to the socio-psychological event of migration and
acculturation? The following principles aid in guiding our thinking:
1. Migration as an expression of uprooting has to be conceptualized as a
complex group of behaviors that appear as expressed
outcome of multiple systems, with consequent impact on the individual, the
family, and the community.
2. The integrative framework has to include a multidisciplinary
integration of such fields as behavioral biology, anthropology, sociology,
developmental and social psychology, psychiatry and public health.
3. Basic research findings in the above-mentioned areas offer an
organizing group of themes to assist in understanding the phenomenology of
migration.
A special quality
of being uprooted is that the need to change is faced at the same time one is
separated from familiar social, cultural and environmental support systems.
Uprooting is a subjective reality in which the continuity of shared traditions,
social relations, and valued interpersonal linkages play a key role on adaptive
success. These culturally valued patterns of behavior are difficult to change
because one's sense of identity, self-esteem and interpersonal relationships
may be dependent upon them. The new setting - the United States - produces
severe difficulties in communication, both at the verbal and nonverbal levels,
as the Hispanic interacts with the United States citizen. The identity of being
a minority increases the loss of self-confidence arid intensifies the anxiety
of becoming a functional illiterate.
Disorientation to
the sensory world extends beyond the auditory understanding of an unfamiliar
language to include changes in the customary sense of time. Visual stimuli that
match internalized memories of streets, sky or sea are associated with powerful
emotions that may constrain successful acculturation to a new land. All the past learned configurations
of the lost world act as guideposts, offering continuity of patterned behavior,
with its associated neurophysiologic infrastructure of memory and emotions.
All these lessons have to be changed, abandoned or readapted in unpredictable
ways and at unpredictable rates by the uprooted person.
How do we modify
all these skills to mesh them with the new and necessary acquisition of
American customs? How does this process of integrating and assimilating occur
in the brain? What gives meaning to the everyday cues and how do we understand
signs emoted by individuals of this country? Which of these translate into the
needed sensations of intimacy and friendship, of comfort in the sense of
belonging? If the dependence and independence needs of an individual are
modified within the new setting, is adaptation to the new culture feasible? If
not, can this lead to such desolating consequences as the inability to cope
with loss of family, friends, home and country? What does it take to link the
individual with a set of new opportunities offering freedom for evolution of
new and constructive patterns of lives?
Transitional Stages between Migration and Acculturation
Migration,
transitional experiences and finally acculturation into a new setting comprise
the set of events associated with the process of acculturation. Immigration as
a current social process is well-documented and attracts the attention and
energy of all types of public systems.
Although much has
been written about mass movements of large populations from their land of
origin and about experiences during the uprooting and displacement process, the
majority of research appears to focus on the adjustment necessary to survive in
the land of destination. The departure or entry of groups requires readjustments
in each of the two affected social systems. The greater the proportion of the
migrant population relative to the host population, the more far-reaching the
social adaptation required of the receiving social system that s/he leaves and
the one s/he enters.
The social strata
into which the migrant individual enters has an ongoing influence on the level
of stressors. The specific degree of readjustment that needs to take place
within different strata will be influenced by the racial, ethnic and religious
characteristics of the subgroup the immigrant enters into in the
An immigrant's
entry into the American environment is a gradual process, and the relationship
between the variables of time, lifestyle and opportunities are relevant to acculturation.
The transitional process is dynamic and varies with the shifting behavior needs
and time frames of the immigrant and the American subgroup entered. Although
all these complex system interactions have to be taken into consideration when
focusing on individuals, most of the remaining presentation deals with
psychological process of stress responses, adaptation, and cross-cultural
interactions among Hispanics who are in the process of becoming acculturated to
this host country.
Acculturation and Stress: Basic Concepts
A conceptual and
methodological limitation of several studies on acculturation patterns pertains
to the manner in which the "cultural variable" was defined. Generally
in the investigation of cultural differences, culture is defined qualitatively
in terms of ethnic group membership - Chicano vs. Anglo - thus ignoring
within-group variability in cultural characteristics. It is difficult to
measure the impact of the continuous acculturation process on values,
traditions and behaviors. These ongoing processes of reshaping personality
expressiveness adapt more effectively in the new environment. There appear to
be considerable differences in the extent to which given individuals share the
socio-cultural and psychological characteristics of the larger society in which
they are imbedded.
A conceptual
construct for analyzing levels of acculturation should address: 1) language
use, 2) generational levels, 3) amount of schooling in the
These findings
(29) indicate that to be successful within a host culture, one must learn the
behavior associated with success within the host culture, while at the same
time remaining loyal to the culture of origin.
Successful
adjustment and upward economic mobility seem to be predicated on the Hispanic
imitating and engaging comfortably in behaviors that are part of mainstream
American culture. The combination of different value orientations between
Hispanics - cooperation and loyalty versus such Anglo values as competition -
can coexist, yet present a challenge and dilemma to adaptation goals. These
goals are mediated by the individual's constant readjustment of a traditional
Hispanic value orientation and ability to engage in strategies that are associated
with success in the
Different stages
in the process have different characteristics, and issues that are important at
one stage may disappear at another. These stages and issues include increased
familiarity and knowledge of usual social interaction patterns, opportunities
for experimentation, expected barriers to hoped outcomes, different modalities
of negotiating and of using strategies in competing, conflict resolution and
accommodation, and changes across time frames.
Although some of
the psychodynamic components of acculturation have been analyzed, it is
essential that acculturation be viewed as a multidimensional process.
Acculturation may be considered a group of sub-processes, each focusing on
different aspects of life in the total adaptation effort. Immigrants use a
variety of pathways and mechanisms to enter into new social interactions,
affecting their role behaviors. This points to the
multiple conceptual dimension which is helpful because of the lack of knowledge
of large areas of human behavior. Newcomers are generally not presented with a
coherent set of customs to which they should adhere. The reality of the host
society, in terms of ethnic, socioeconomic class and regional setting, results
in a variety of norms to which immigrants are expected to adapt. Immigrants
channeled into a random subgroup of this country's pluralistic population may
learn the norms of one group, but they remain ignorant of the norms of many
others (30).
If that subgroup happens to consist of immigrants from the same place of origin, as happens in Miami, Los Angeles or New York which are home to large groups of first- generation Hispanics, this separation may intensify feelings of isolation, and decrease his/her social adaptive skill.
Whichever dimensions of integration are considered, the process is an interactive dynamic exchange between the immigrant and the host society. There is a mutual process of adaptation through which immigrants and American citizens respond to each other with natively acquired social patterns. Each side has an effect on the other and each may change in response to an accommodation need. This is a social process of vital importance to the life events of a group.
The host country –
in this instance, the
The
Characteristics of the American society, in terms of openness, are expressed by
traditions, rules, and regulations within its public and legal agencies and
with the granting of privileges, rewards and punishments as well as the
informal attitudes expressed by different subgroups in the regions of the
To conceptualize exchange between the migratory experience as a stressor and the acculturating, adaptive process as a group of stress responses, the following body of knowledge has been selected.
Acculturation and Adaptation
All studies have presented acculturation processes and outcomes as complex, multileveled, multivariable reverberating human systems, encompassing communication styles, scales of values, and behaviors expressed across different social rules. A wide variety of studies focus on broad manifestations of behavior categorized as adaptive and functional with more or less problems and conflicts. Padilla (1) describes the admixture of identifying with the dominant American societal culture and permanent values as encompassing two elements: cultural awareness and ethnic loyalty.
Szapoznic and Kurtines (29) categorize multiple constellations of adaptation as acculturation, bicultural, psychological adjustment and under-acculturation. These studies and many others discussed the phenomenology of behavior observed among individuals having different cultural guidelines for their behavior and for their understanding of behavior exhibited by members of the host country.
The concepts of stressor-stress response, crisis resolution and adaptation serve as a conceptual bridge to organize observations on immigrants and comprehend the process of acculturation.
Engel’s theories (31) on the socio-cultural behavior, reactions and thinking of a person can be used in defining how individual adapts to the new conditions presented in the host country. In summary, Engel proposes that “the single individual (person) is the highest level of the organism hierarchy and at the same time the lowest unit of the social hierarchy.”
Each system is given distinct qualities and relationships for the level of organization and each requires criteria for study and explanation unique to that level. Engel points out that the same methods for labeling, measuring and drawings scientific conclusions cannot be used to identify and characterize the components of each system (bio-psycho-social-cultural) with their reverberating feedback controlling and modulating loops. Cell, organ, person, family - each indicate a level of complex integrated organization about the existence of the universe. Different approaches are required to gain an understanding of the guidelines of forces responsible for the collective order of each system.
To understand an
individual, we make many judgments about his/her experiences and behavior. We describe many of the biological influences
on behavior but to understand them, we need the input of many we need the input
of many social systems influencing individual, such as how the cultural
components of the systems influence the individual because the culture
components of the systems are specific and powerful. These socio-cultural concepts offer a
theoretical structure to enhance the “Engel” model and incorporate the feedback
loops between biological, psychological and socio-cultural systems, incorporating
the role of meaning, experiences and behavior of individuals living in the
This group of concepts assists in uniting several conceptual psychosocial theoretical propositions with the human behavior phenomenology observed in the resolution of crisis-reactions post-stressors (immigration) followed by adaptation- bicultural guidelines of behavior (acculturation).
According to Luhmann (33), the individual's psychobiological systems are partially controlled and directed by the processes of experience and actions; these groups of processes build up to the child's developmental stages and experience to form systems of channeling meaning to incorporate or discard random stimuli in the environment.
These personal referential points, by delineating only certain alternatives as possible, already negate certain others. The role of reality testing, logical thinking and attributional judgment appears to be embedded in a theoretical construct. “Meaning” reduces the complexity of the stimuli in the environment by selecting certain experiences and actions as possible and eliminating others as impossible. This process is linked to child development, parental rearing and continuous socialization. We incorporate the systems’ meaning of our cultural background through other individuals who already perceive the world in terms of the social cultural characteristics of their world. We acquire a perspective on things that are culturally system-bound and traditional. Our actual experiences and actions refer only to those possibilities that pertain to a particular system in our cultural.
Contemporary work and cognitive science has shown that people strive to construct a coherent and satisfying interpretation of events around them in everyday life. People often tried to accomplish this by organizing events to perceive according to schemata of cause and effect. People often try to impute causal relations between temporarily contiguous events, even though the relations were not strictly causal but simply incidental (for example, premonition of events). We use different causal schemata to assist us in the process of making casual inferences about the past and about the future. These frames are reference assistance us in locating the search for cause within certain culturally-dependent meaningful domains. The choice of a particular frame of reference – Hispanic – is crucial to coping adapting for migrants of that extraction since it directs attention to a group of variables identified by the value system, thereby excluding others. Building on this, Hispanics create attributable reasons for behavior and events. These schemata have cultural repertories, with emotional values attached to them.
Jasper (34)
distinguishes the meaningfulness of the individuals experience and behavior in
relation to how an event affected him or her versus the objective, realistic
characteristics of the event as judged by observers. He points to the need to
evaluate between causal and meaningful processes by describing both
descriptions in terms of selection, negation and the deduction of complexity.
The concept of understanding guides us through the process of how we make
"sense" of other individuals. It assists us in our everyday social
interaction with other people. We grasp and interpret behavior by observable
signs and values. These manifestations are based on objective givens -
programmed and interpreted according to socio-cultural internalized
"blueprints."
Using certain
ideas [Schwartz and Wiggins (32), Luhmann (33), and
Jasper (34)], we can build a conceptual bridge between immigration as a
stressor and acculturation as a manifestation of stress response. We can
conceptualize the interactions between migrant experiences, acculturation
processes and the new environment as a complex, dynamic and fluid system force
affecting the Hispanic individual's adaptation outcome in the
Using this broad
system's interactive and theoretical conceptualization to understand the
immigrant's behavior, we can apply the theories to guide our thinking about the
stressor effect on an individual immigrant and the influential role the
constant effort to lower stressor effects plays in developing acculturated
behavior.
Our first
observations about the mythical migrant are on the person-system (31) and take
place within a two-person, face-to-face system (for example, immigration
agents, customs or jobs). The inner experience of the immigrant - his/her feeling,
thoughts, behavior - will be an amalgamation of his/her experiences and skills.
With the system's hierarchy, with Engel as a guide, we need to consider the
individual's age, gender, past and present residence, marital and family
status, past and present occupation, whether s/he is employed or jobless, and
his/her citizenship status. Each immigrant will present a group of
psychological reactions, styles and conflict expression behaviors as s/he
orients him/herself and his/her family in the new setting; locks for housing, a
job and income; and develops human relationships and ethnic identity re-enforcers.
Lazarus' research findings (22) support the supposition that many of these
interactions could be catalogued as "hassles," while Eisdorfer (35) calls them different stressors, varying
reactions and outcomes. During the sequence of critical events in the
immigrant's adjustment to daily novel experiences, s/he will build
micro-adaptive skills according to the interplay between events, the
individual's characteristics, and the context in which events occur.
Using the multiple
hierarchical components, we can postulate that coping and adapting, as a
function of acculturation will depend on the interrelationship of the
individual with his/her internalized "world of origin" and the
American receiving environmental characteristics. The experience of crisis and
crisis resolution as first experiences in acculturation plays an important
guiding "blueprint" for avoiding the threat of disruption. The process
of integrating and regulating inner experiences and behavior require daily
adaptive processes. The immigrant's psychological response oscillates between
the initial crisis response - alarm - and increased awareness of coping
procedures at his/her disposal which, when functioning effectively, return his/
her coping abilities and increase his/her sense of self-esteem. These coping
abilities are founded on a scale of personal values, including responsibility,
dependence-independence, loyalty, and control of the environment.
We can theorize
that psychological stabilization and regularities of behavior observed during
interactions between Hispanics and Americans may be the outcome
of a set
of stimuli that tend to force the human organism to equilibrate his/her
adaptive functions to a new setting. The member of the host country (
Multiple questions
emerge as one wonders what elements exist between Hispanics and Americans which
might be conducive to successful adaptation to a "different"
Further attention
needs to be given to the role that social and political factors play in the
state of adaptation and acculturation within the
In conclusion, I
would like to suggest that although multiple studies have been published about
multiple effects of human adaptation to new settings, none of them seems to
capture the resilience, creativity and amazing capacity to survive that is
inherent in human nature.
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